The History of Ustašha

The Ustaša (or Ustasha) was a Croatian ultranationalist, fascist organization that played a significant and notorious role during World War II.

Known for their extreme nationalist ideology and brutal acts of violence, the Ustaša established a puppet state, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH), in alliance with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy.

Their regime was characterized by genocidal policies, particularly against Serbs, Jews, Roma, and political opponents, which resulted in the deaths of hundreds of thousands of people.

Origins and Ideology of Ustasha

The Ustašha movement was founded in 1929 by Ante Pavelić, a Croatian lawyer and politician, who sought independence for Croatia from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. At the time, Yugoslavia was a monarchy dominated by Serbs, and many Croats felt marginalized and oppressed within the newly created state, which was formed after the breakup of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I.

The Ustašha’s ideology was rooted in extreme Croatian nationalism, anti-Serb sentiment, and a blend of fascist and Catholic values. They sought to create an ethnically “pure” Croatian state, and their platform advocated for the removal or extermination of Serbs, Jews, and other minorities whom they considered to be obstacles to a homogeneous Croatian nation. The movement also promoted Catholicism as a defining feature of Croatian identity, which further alienated the Orthodox Serb population.

The Ustašha began as a small, radical terrorist group that carried out acts of violence and sabotage. One of its most infamous early acts was the assassination of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia in 1934, carried out with the help of Macedonian separatists in Marseille, France. This act of violence marked the Ustaša as a dangerous and extreme nationalist group, but they remained relatively marginalized until the outbreak of World War II.

Rise to Power: The Independent State of Croatia (NDH)

In April 1941, Nazi Germany and its allies invaded Yugoslavia. The swift defeat of the Yugoslav army led to the disintegration of the kingdom, and the Axis powers quickly carved up its territory. Ante Pavelić, with the backing of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, proclaimed the establishment of the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) on April 10, 1941. The NDH included not only Croatia but also Bosnia and Herzegovina and parts of Serbia.

The Ustašha regime was installed as the ruling power in the NDH, with Pavelić as its Poglavnik (leader). The NDH became a puppet state of the Axis powers, and the Ustaša’s policies were closely aligned with the racial and ideological goals of Nazi Germany.

Genocidal Policies and Atrocities

The Ustašha regime quickly implemented a policy of ethnic cleansing aimed at creating an ethnically pure Croatian state. Their primary targets were Serbs, who made up a large portion of the population in the NDH, but Jews, Roma, and political opponents were also persecuted. The regime adopted a brutal policy of “killing a third, converting a third, and expelling a third” of the Serb population. This meant that one-third of the Serbs were to be killed, one-third forcibly converted to Catholicism, and one-third expelled from the NDH.

The Ustaša’s genocidal campaign was marked by extreme brutality. Mass executions, forced deportations, and widespread atrocities were carried out, particularly in the countryside and in areas with a high Serb population. Ustaša forces used methods of torture and murder that shocked even the Nazis and Italians, who at times attempted to rein in the violence due to concerns over destabilization.

One of the most infamous symbols of Ustaša terror was the Jasenovac concentration camp, often referred to as the “Auschwitz of the Balkans.” Established in 1941, Jasenovac was a massive complex of concentration and extermination camps where tens of thousands of Serbs, Jews, Roma, and others were murdered. Victims were subjected to appalling conditions, brutal executions, and torture. Estimates of the number of people killed at Jasenovac range from 80,000 to over 100,000, with some sources suggesting even higher figures.

In addition to Jasenovac, the Ustaša operated other camps, and paramilitary units carried out massacres in villages and towns across the NDH. The violence was not limited to soldiers and adult men—women, children, and the elderly were often among the victims of the Ustaša’s genocidal campaign.

Collaboration with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy

The Ustaša regime was closely aligned with Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, both of which played a key role in supporting the establishment of the NDH. Pavelić and his government relied heavily on German and Italian military support to maintain control over the country, particularly as resistance movements such as the Yugoslav Partisans (led by Josip Broz Tito) and the Chetniks (a Serbian nationalist royalist resistance group) grew in strength.

The Ustaša regime also adopted many of the racial policies of Nazi Germany. Jews in the NDH were subject to deportation and extermination, with thousands sent to death camps such as Auschwitz and Jasenovac. Roma people were also targeted for extermination, and many were killed in camps or in mass executions.

However, the relationship between the Ustaša and their Axis patrons was not always smooth. The Italians, in particular, were concerned about the extreme brutality of the Ustaša and the potential for unrest in the areas they controlled. There were tensions over territorial disputes, particularly regarding Dalmatia, which Italy claimed as part of its sphere of influence. Nevertheless, the Ustaša remained loyal to their Axis allies until the very end of the war.

Resistance and Defeat

Throughout the war, the Ustaša faced growing resistance from both the communist-led Partisans and the royalist Chetniks. The Partisans, under the leadership of Josip Broz Tito, were particularly effective in organizing a multi-ethnic resistance movement that fought against both the Axis forces and the Ustaša regime. Tito’s Partisans gained significant support from the Allies, and by 1944-1945, they were able to liberate large parts of Yugoslavia from Axis and Ustaša control.

As the Axis powers began to crumble in the final stages of the war, the Ustaša regime found itself increasingly isolated. In May 1945, with the collapse of Nazi Germany and the advance of the Partisans, Pavelić and many of the Ustaša leadership fled to Austria and Italy. The NDH quickly disintegrated, and the Partisans declared victory in Yugoslavia.

After the war, Tito’s new socialist Yugoslavia sought to bring the leaders of the Ustaša regime to justice. Ante Pavelić, however, escaped capture and eventually fled to Argentina, where he lived in exile for many years. He survived an assassination attempt in 1957 but died of his wounds in 1959.

Aftermath and Legacy of Ustasha

The legacy of the Ustaša regime is one of deep trauma and division in the Balkans. The atrocities committed by the Ustaša during World War II left lasting scars, particularly in the relationships between Croats, Serbs, and other ethnic groups in the former Yugoslavia. The genocide against the Serbs, Jews, and Roma in the NDH has been a deeply contentious and painful chapter in Balkan history, contributing to ethnic tensions that persisted throughout the 20th century.

The memory of the Ustaša also played a role in the Yugoslav Wars of the 1990s. During the wars following the breakup of Yugoslavia, elements of Croatian nationalism sought to revive aspects of Ustaša symbolism and rhetoric, leading to further tensions between Croats and Serbs. 

While mainstream Croatian politics distanced itself from the Ustaša legacy, far-right and nationalist groups have continued to glorify the movement in some circles, which has been a source of controversy both in Croatia and internationally.

Conclusion

The Ustašha movement was one of the most violent and extremist nationalist movements of the 20th century. Under Ante Pavelić’s leadership, the Ustaša perpetrated genocide and terror in pursuit of their vision of an ethnically pure Croatia. 

Their regime was marked by atrocities against Serbs, Jews, Roma, and other minorities, leaving a legacy of suffering that continues to affect the region to this day. The Ustaša’s role in the Holocaust and their brutal policies of ethnic cleansing remain central to the understanding of World War II in the Balkans and the subsequent conflicts in the region.

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